pub_dub's Xanga

Sunday, May 22, 2005

Sun, 22 May 2005 14:49:40 GMT

Sunday, May 22, 2005

Sun, 22 May 2005 14:46:30 GMT

Wednesday, May 18, 2005

Wed, 18 May 2005 20:40:37 GMT

South Korea

THE CHOSoN DYNASTY

Statue of King Sejong (1418-50), Toksu Palace, Seoul
Courtesy Oren Hadar

The Koryo Dynasty had suffered from a number of internal problems; Yi and his followers implemented drastic reforms to place the new dynasty on firmer ground. One of these problems revolved around the deterioration of land administration, a basic issue in a predominantly agrarian society. Contrary to the law specifying public (governmental) ownership of land, powerful clans and Buddhist temples had acquired a sizable proportion of farmland. By exacting a disproportionate share of crops in the form of rents, the "landlords" were causing economic destitution and social discontent among the peasants. By illicitly removing the farms from tax rolls, these clans and temples reduced the government's income, thus straining the treasury. Yi had sided with reformists even before he took power, hence it was natural for him to rectify past inequities after ascending to the throne.

The reform of the land system, however, had direct repercussions on the practice of Buddhism, because Buddhist temples and monks had been among those exacerbating the land problem. The economic influence of the temples was eliminated when they lost vast lands. The rectification went beyond economic reform, however, because the dominant forces in the new dynasty were devout Confucianists who regarded Buddhism as a false creed. The fact that Buddhist monks had wielded a strong influence in politics, the economy, and society during the latter part of the Koryo Dynasty--and that many of them had been corrupted by power and money--strengthened the opposition to Buddhism. Accordingly, the new dynasty launched a sweeping attack on Buddhism and its institutions, an attack that had profound and enduring effects on the character of civilization on the peninsula.

Many of the outstanding temples were permitted to remain intact; indeed, a few Choson monarchs were devout Buddhists. Nevertheless, Buddhism exerted little influence over the religious life of Korea under the Choson Dynasty; nor did any organized religion replace it. Although many people adhered to shamanism, geomancy, fortunetelling, and superstitions, Korea effectively became a secular society.

The Choson Dynasty had an auspicious beginning. During the reign of the fourth monarch, King Sejong (1418-50), a Buddhist, enormous strides were made in the arts, science, and technology. The Korean script, known as han'gul (see Glossary), which eventually came into common usage in the twentieth century, was developed by scholars at that time.

After Sejong, however, the dynasty fell into the hands of lesser men, and in the late fifteenth century the country began a long decline. Succession to the throne often caused long and bitter struggles, particularly when a ruler did not leave behind an heir who had reached the age of majority. Members of the Confucian-educated, scholar-official elite yangban (see Glossary) class quarreled over minor points of Confucian ritual and etiquette, especially the proper period of mourning upon the death of a royal personage. Factional groups began vying for power, frequently going to the extreme of exterminating the members of defeated factions. The civil service examination became a sham, and corruption ran rampant. Royal relatives and members of powerful factions increased their landholdings, which became exempt from taxes and thereby reduced the dynasty's sources of revenue. The farmers suffered more and more from tax burdens and other extractions imposed by greedy officials and landlords. In short, the country was not being effectively governed. To make matters worse, Japanese attacks in 1592 and 1597 and Manchu assaults in 1627 and 1636 ravaged the country's economy and turned much of the farmland to waste for a long period thereafter.

The resulting social and economic depression of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries fostered the rise of a new intellectual movement advocating the practical use of human knowledge. Pioneered by a Confucian scholar named Yi Su-kwang, the new thought--soon to be called Sirhak (practical learning)--was partly inspired by the firsthand knowledge of occidental sciences that Yi Su-kwang had acquired while on official visits to Beijing. As historian Ki-baik Lee has noted, Sirhak thought encompassed a variety of intellectual activities and several diverse viewpoints. These included proposals for refinement of the traditional administrative and land systems, advocacy of commercial and manufacturing activity, and a renewed interest in Korean history and language. Brought to maturity in the late eighteenth century by Chong Yag-yong, the Sirhak Movement was supported by a group of discontented scholars, petty officials, former bureaucrats, and commoners.

The Sirhak Movement found itself in direct confrontation with the dominant trend in neo-Confucian thought, which stressed the metaphysical and abstract teachings of the renowned Chinese philosopher Zhu Xi (see Traditional Social Structure , ch. 2). Neither the efforts of such wise and able kings as Yongjo (1725-75) and Chongjo (1776-1800), nor those of the Sirhak scholars, were able to reverse the trend against empirical studies and good government.

Western ideas, including Christianity, reached Korea through China in the seventeenth century. By 1785, however, the government had become incensed over the rejection of ancestor worship by Roman Catholic missionaries, and it banned all forms of Western learning. Western ships began to approach Korean shores after 1801, seeking trade and other contacts, but the government rejected all overtures from abroad. When news of the Opium War in China (1839-42) reached Korea, the dynasty had all the more reason to shut the doors tightly against Western "barbarians." In the meantime, the Choson Dynasty suffered from a series of natural calamities including floods, famines, and epidemics, as well as large-scale revolts of the masses in the northwest (1811-12) and southwest (1862 and 1894-95).

The expansion of Western powers in East Asia in the nineteenth century significantly altered the established order, in which Korea had been dominated by China. China under the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) was in decline; its power waned rapidly under the concerted attacks of such Western nations as France, Britain, and Russia. Stimulated by these events, Japan proceeded to modernize after having been forced to open its ports by Commodore Matthew C. Perry of the United States Navy in 1853-54. Korea, however, remained dormant, having closed itself to all outside contacts in the early eighteenth century.

The Japanese were the first foreign power in recent history to succeed in penetrating Korea's isolation. After a warlike Japanese provocation against Korea in 1875 (when China failed to come to Korea's aid), the Japanese forced an unequal treaty on Korea in February 1876. The treaty gave Japanese nationals extraterritorial rights and opened up three Korean ports to Japanese trade. In retaliation, China sought to counter Japan by extending Korea's external relations and playing off one Western power against another. Accordingly, Korea signed treaties with the United States, Britain, Italy, Russia, and other countries were signed within the decade after the one with Japan.

Internally, the Korean court split into rival pro-Chinese, pro-Japanese, and pro-Russian factions, the latter two having more reformist and modernizing orientations. In 1895 the Japanese minister to Korea masterminded the assassination of the Korean queen, who with her clan had opposed reform-oriented, Japanese-supported leaders. The Korean king, however, rejected not only Japan but also the various reform measures and turned for support to one of Japan's adversaries--Russia. The king fled to the Russian legation in Seoul to avoid possible Japanese plots against him and conducted the nation's business from there. The Japanese blunder had served the Russians well.

In the meantime, under the leadership of So Chae-p'il, who had exiled himself to the United States after participating in an unsuccessful palace coup in 1884, a massive campaign was launched to advocate Korean independence from foreign influence and controls. As well as supporting Korean independence, So also advocated reform in Korea's politics and customs in line with Western practices. Upon his return to Korea in 1896, So published Tongnip simmun (The Independent), the first newspaper to use the han'gul writing system and the vernacular language, which attracted an ever-growing audience (see The Korean Language , ch. 2). He also organized the Independence Club to introduce Korea's elite to Western ideas and practices. Under his impetus and the influence of education provided by Protestant mission schools, hundreds of young men held mass meetings on the streets and plazas demanding democratic reforms and an end to Russian and Japanese domination. But the conservative forces proved to be too deeply entrenched for the progressive reformers who trashed the paper's offices. The reformers, including Syngman Rhee, then a student leader, were jailed. So was compelled to return to the United States in 1898, and under one pretext or another the government suppressed both the reform movement and its newspaper.

The revolt of 1894-95, known as the Tonghak Rebellion, had international repercussions. Like the Taiping rebels in China thirty years earlier, the Tonghak (see Glossary) participants were fired by religious fervor as well as by indignation about the corrupt and oppressive government. The rebellion spread from the southwest to the central region of the peninsula, menacing Seoul. The Korean court apparently felt unable to cope with the rebels and invited China to send troops to quell the rebellion. This move gave Japan a pretext to dispatch troops to Korea. The two countries soon engaged in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-95), which accelerated the demise of the Qing Dynasty in China.

The victorious Japanese established their hegemony over Korea via the Treaty of Shimonoseki (1895) and dictated to the Korean government a wide-ranging series of measures to prevent further domestic disturbances. In response, the government promulgated various reforms, including the abolition of class distinctions, the liberation of slaves, the abolition of the ritualistic civil service examination system, and the adoption of a new tax system.

Russian influence had been on the rise in East Asia, in direct conflict with the Japanese desire for expansion. In alliance with France and Germany, Russia had just forced Japan to return the Liaodong Peninsula to China (which Japan had seized during the First Sino-Japanese War) and then promptly leased the territory from China. The secret Sino-Russian treaty signed in 1896 also gave the Russians the right to build and operate the Chinese Eastern Railway across northern Manchuria, which served as a link in the Russian Trans-Siberian Railway to Vladivostok. Russia proceeded to acquire numerous concessions over Korea's forests and mines.

The strategic rivalry between Russia and Japan exploded in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5, won by Japan. Under the peace treaty signed in September 1905, Russia acknowledged Japan's "paramount political, military, and economic interest" in Korea. A separate agreement signed in secret between the United States and Japan at this time subsequently aroused anti-American sentiment among Koreans. The Taft-Katsura Agreement was cynical by modern standards, exchanging what amounted to a lack of interest and military capability in Korea on the part of the United States (Japan was given a free hand in Korea) for a lack of interest or capability in the Philippines on the part of Japan (Japanese imperialism was diverted from the Philippines). Given the diplomatic conventions of the times, however, the agreement was a much weaker endorsement of the Japanese presence in Korea than either the Russo-Japanese peace treaty or a separate Anglo- Japanese accord. Two months later, Korea was obliged to become a Japanese protectorate. Thereafter, a large number of Koreans organized themselves in education and reform movements, but by then Japanese dominance in Korea was a reality. Japan annexed Korea as a colony on August 22, 1910.

Wednesday, May 18, 2005

Wed, 18 May 2005 20:38:50 GMT

History

Main articles: History of Korea, History of South Korea

After the end of World War II, the world's superpowers divided Korea into two zones of influence. In 1948, two matching governments were formed: a communist North and a United States-influenced republic South. In June 1950, the Korean War broke out. The United Nations-backed South and the USSR-backed North eventually reached a stalemate and an armistice was signed in 1953, splitting the peninsula along the demilitarized zone at about the 38th parallel, which had been the original demarcation line.

Thereafter, South Korea, under the autocratic government of Syngman Rhee and the dictatorship of Park Chung Hee, achieved rapid economic growth. In 1980 Park Chung Hee was overthrown in a military coup which in turn brought General Chun Doo-hwan into power. Massive student demonstrations in the spring of that year resulted in a military crackdown and the Gwangju Massacre. During this time a US general retained ultimate operational control over joint US-South Korean forces. Civil unrest dominated politics until protests succeeded in overthrowing the dictatorship and installing a more democratic form of government in the late 1980s with the election of Roh Tae-woo to the presidency. In the 1990s, South Korea became one of the world's largest economies. In 1996 South Korea joined the OECD. Today, South Korea is a fully functioning modern democracy and one of Asia's most affluent nations.

A potential Korean reunification has remained a prominent topic; no peace treaty has yet been signed with the North. In June 2000, a historic first North-South summit took place, part of the South's continuing "Sunshine Policy" of engagement. Since then, regular contacts have led to a cautious thaw. However, there have been recent concerns over the North's nuclear weapons program.

See also: Rulers of Korea, Division of Korea

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Government and Politics

Main article: Politics of South Korea

The National Assembly

The Republic of Korea is a highly developed, stable, democratic republic with powers shared between the president and the legislature.

The head of state of the Republic of Korea is the president, who is elected by direct popular vote for a single five-year term. In addition to being the highest representative of the republic and commander-in-chief of the armed forces, the president also has considerable executive powers and appoints the prime minister with approval of parliament, as well as appointing and presiding over the State Council or cabinet.

The unicameral Korean parliament is the National Assembly or gukhweh (국회), whose members serve a four-year term of office. The legislature currently has 299 seats, of which 243 are elected by regional vote and the remainder are distributed by the proportional representation ballot. The highest judiciary body is the Supreme Court, whose justices are appointed by the president with the consent of parliament.

Since 1948, South Korea has been governed under six constitutions. Each constitution signifies a new South Korean republic. The current government is known as the Sixth Republic under the 1988 constitution.

The main political parties in South Korea are the Uri Party, the Grand National Party (GNP), the Democratic Labor Party (DLP), and the Millennium Democratic Party (MDP). In late 2003 a faction of the MDP split from the party and formed the liberal Uri Party. The Uri Party gained a slim majority in the National Assembly in the April 2004 legislative elections. The conservative GNP and centrist MDP form the political opposition. The left-wing DLP, which is aligned with labor unions, represents the interests of the working class.

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Geography of South Korea

Map of South Korea

Main articles: Geography of South Korea

Korea forms a peninsula that extends some 1,100 km from the Asian mainland, flanked by the Yellow Sea ("West Sea") to the west and the East Sea (Sea of Japan) to the east, and terminated by the Korea Strait and the South Sea (East China Sea) to the south. The southern landscape consists of partially forested mountain ranges to the east, separated by deep, narrow valleys. Densely populated and cultivated coastal plains are found in the west and south. About 3,000 islands, most of which are small and uninhabited, lie off the western and southern coasts. The total area of South Korea is 99,268 sq km.

South Korea is a mountainous country. Lowlands, located primarily in the west and southeast, constitute only 30 percent of the total land area. South Korea can be divided into three general regions: an eastern region of high mountain ranges and narrow coastal plains; a western region of broad coastal plains, river basins, and rolling hills; and a southern region, where a maze of mountains and valleys in the west contrasts with the broad basin of the Nakdong River in the southeast.

Halla-san, an extinct volcano that forms Jeju Island, is the country’s highest point at 1,950 m (6,398 ft). Jeju Island is located about 100 km (about 60 mi) off the southern coast of South Korea. It is the country’s largest island, with an area of 1,845 sq km (712 sq mi).

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Climate

The local climate is relatively temperate, with precipitation heavier in summer during a short rainy season called jangma, and winters that can be bitterly cold on occasion.

In Seoul the average January temperature range is -7° to 1°C (19° to 33°F), and the average July temperature range is 22° to 29°C (71° to 83°F). Winter temperatures are higher along the southern coast and considerably lower in the mountainous interior. Rainfall is concentrated in the summer months (June to September). The southern coast is subject to late summer typhoons that bring strong winds and heavy rains.

The average annual precipitation in Seoul is 54 inches. In Busan, it is 58 inches. Rainfall is concentrated in the summer months of June through September. The southern coastline is subject to late summer typhoons that bring strong winds and heavy rains.

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Wildlife

Most of South Korea's forests were cleared over many centuries for use as firewood and building materials. However, they have rebounded since the 1970s as a result of intensive reforestation efforts. The country's few remaining old-growth forests are protected in nature reserves. South Korea also has more than a dozen national parks. One of the world's most interesting wildlife sanctuaries has developed in the DMZ, having been virtually untouched since 1953. The uninhabited zone has become a haven for many kinds of wildlife, particularly migrating birds.

The national flower of South Korea is the Rose of Sharon, a species of hibiscus that blooms continually from July through October. In South Korea, it is known as mugunghwa, meaning "eternal flower".

Large mammals such as tigers, bears, and lynx were once abundant throughout the Korean peninsula. However, they have virtually disappeared due to human settlement, loss of forest habitat, and overhunting. The Siberian tiger has not been sighted in South Korea since the 1920s. The peninsula has several indigenous species of deer, including the roe deer and the Siberian musk deer.

See also: regions of Korea

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Provinces and cities

Main article: Administrative divisions of South Korea.

South Korea consists of 1 Special City (Teukbyeolsi; 특별시; 特別市), 6 Metropolitan Cities (Gwangyeoksi, singular and plural; 광역시; 廣域市), and 9 Provinces (do, singular and plural; 도; 道). The names below are given in English, Revised Romanization, Hangul, and Hanja.

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Special City

Seoul Special City (Seoul Teukbyeolsi; 서울 특별시; 서울特別市)

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Metropolitan Cities

Busan Metropolitan City (Busan Gwangyeoksi; 부산 광역시; 釜山廣域市)
Daegu Metropolitan City (Daegu Gwangyeoksi; 대구 광역시; 大邱廣域市)
Incheon Metropolitan City (Incheon Gwangyeoksi; 인천 광역시; 仁川廣域市)
Gwangju Metropolitan City (Gwangju Gwangyeoksi; 광주 광역시; 光州廣域市)
Daejeon Metropolitan City (Daejeon Gwangyeoksi; 대전 광역시; 大田廣域市)
Ulsan Metropolitan City (Ulsan Gwangyeoksi; 울산 광역시; 蔚山廣域市)

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Provinces

Gyeonggi Province (Gyeonggi-do; 경기도; 京畿道)
Gangwon Province (Gangwon-do; 강원도; 江原道)
North Chungcheong Province (Chungcheongbuk-do; 충청 북도; 忠清北道)
South Chungcheong Province (Chungcheongnam-do; 충청 남도; 忠清南道)
North Jeolla Province (Jeollabuk-do; 전라 북도; 全羅北道)
South Jeolla Province (Jeollanam-do; 전라 남도; 全羅南道)
North Gyeongsang Province (Gyeongsangbuk-do; 경상 북도; 慶尚北道)
South Gyeongsang Province(Gyeongsangnam-do; 경상 남도; 慶尚南道)
Jeju Province (Jeju-do; 제주도; 濟州道)

See also: Provinces of Korea and Special cities of Korea for historical information.

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Economy

Main article: Economy of South Korea

Considered a basket case in the 1960s, South Korea has transformed itself into a leading industrial power in less than 40 years.

As one of the four East Asian Tigers, South Korea has achieved an impressive record of growth and integration into the global economy making South Korea the 12th largest economy in the world. In the aftermath of WWII, GDP per capita was comparable with levels in the poorest countries of Africa and Asia. Then the Korean War made conditions in Korea even worse. Today its GDP per capita is roughly 20 times North Korea's and equal to the medium economies of the European Union.

This success through the late 1980s was achieved by a system of close government-business ties, including directed credit, import restrictions, sponsorship of specific industries, and a strong labour effort. The government promoted the import of raw materials and technology at the expense of consumer goods and encouraged savings and investment over consumption. The Asian financial crisis of 1997 exposed longstanding weaknesses in South Korea's development model, including high debt/equity ratios, massive foreign borrowing, and an undisciplined financial sector.

Growth plunged by 6.6% in 1998, then strongly recovered to 10.8% in 1999 and 9.2% in 2000. Growth fell back to 3.3% in 2001 because of the slowing global economy, falling exports, and the perception that much-needed corporate and financial reforms have stalled. Led by industry and construction, growth in 2002 was an impressive 5.8%, despite anemic global growth.

As of 2005, in addition to its global leadership in high-speed Internet service, memory semiconductors, flat-panel screens and mobile phones, South Korea ranks first in shipbuilding, third in tire production, fourth in synthetic fiber output, fifth in automotive production and sixth in steel output. The nation also ranked 12th globally in terms of nominal gross domestic product, trade and exports.

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Chaebol

A distinctive feature of the South Korean economy is the long-dominant position of the chaebol (conglomerates), most of which were established after the Korean War. In 1995, among the top 30 chaebol, the top four groups were Hyundai, Samsung, Daewoo, and LG. Since the economic crisis of late 1990s, the corporate landscape has changed considerably, partly as a result of government reforms. In 2003, only 4 out of the 18 largest chaebol remained. However, they continue to dominate economic activity.

South Korea's chaebol are often compared with Japan's keiretsu business groupings, the successors to the pre-war zaibatsu. Even the Chinese characters used in Korean and Japanese for chaebol and zaibatsu are the same. However, this comparison is misleading, due to two main differences between the two. First, the chaebol are still largely controlled by their founding families, unlike the keiretsu, which are run by professional corporate managers. Second, the government prevented the chaebol from owning private banks, partly in order to increase its own leverage over the banks in areas such as credit allocation. The keiretsu, by contrast, usually work with an affiliated bank, giving the affiliated companies almost unlimited access to credit.

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Demographics

Main article: Demographics of South Korea

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The Korean people

Korea's population is one of the most ethnically and linguistically homogeneous in the world, with the only significant minority being a small Chinese community. Koreans have lived in Manchuria for many centuries, and are now a minority in China. Joseph Stalin forced thousands of ethnic Koreans residing in or near Vladivostok and Khabarovsk to relocate to the Central Asian part of the U.S.S.R., fearing Korean collaboration with the Japanese, while the majority of the Korean population in Japan was brought/kidnapped there as forced labor during the colonial period. Political, social and economic instability of South Korea in the past has driven many South Koreans to emigrate to foreign countries, particularly the United States and Canada. California has a large number of Koreans and Korean-Americans, numbering well over one million people. Currently the migration levels for people leaving and returning to South Korea are relatively equal.

The annual rate of population increase in South Korea has dropped steadily from more than 3 percent in the late 1950s to 0.38 percent in 2005. Urbanization of the country has proceeded rapidly since the 1960s, with substantial migration from rural to urban areas; 85 percent of the population is now classified as urban.

Following the division of the Korean peninsual after WWII, about 4 million people from North Korea crossed the border to South Korea. This sudden population increase was partly offset over the next 40 years by emigration from South Korea, especially to Japan and the United States. However, South Korea’s burgeoning economy and improved political climate in the early and mid-1990s slowed the high emigration rates typical of the late 1980s. Many of those who emigrated chose to return to South Korea. lol

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Cities

About 85 percent of South Koreans live in urban areas. The capital city of Seoul had 10.3 million inhabitants in 2003, making it the most populated single city (excluding greater metropolitan areas) in the world. Seoul is also the country's largest city and chief industrial center. Its density has allowed it to become one of the most "digitally-wired" cities in today's globally connected economy.

Other major cities include Busan (3.9 million), Incheon (2.9 million), Daegu (2.65 million), Daejeon (1.48 million), Gwangju (1.38 million) and Ulsan (1.15 million). Busan is the country's principal seaport.

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Language

South Korea's national language is Korean, a distinct language that linguists have not firmly categorized in any language grouping. It is thought by some scholars to be a member of a wider linguistic family of the Altaic languages. Its vocabulary, however, like many East Asian nations, has borrowed a lot from neighboring China, especially in the past. Of all languages, Korean is most similiar in grammar to Japanese.

The Korean writing system, Hangul, was invented in 1446 by King Sejong the Great to widely spread education - as Chinese characters which were used prior to Hangul in Korea were thought to not correlate well with the Korean language/grammar and be too difficult and time consuming for a common person to learn - through the Royal proclamation of Hunmin Jeongeum (훈민정음/訓民正音) which literally means the "proper sounds to teach the general public." It is different from the Chinese form of written communication as it is phonetically based.

Numerous underlying words still stem from Hanja and older people in Korea still prefer to write words in Hanja, as they were discouraged from the study and use of Korean script during the Period of Japanese Rule. The Korean writing system, hangul, was promulgated by King Sejong, although the full extent of King Sejong's involvement in the development of the writing system is unclear. It is widely acknowledged that King Sejong at least commissioned the development of hangul, with the intention to foster wider literacy among the Korean people.

In 2000 the government decided to introduce a new romanization system, which this article also uses. English is taught as a second language in most primary and intermediate schools. Those students in high school are also taught 2 years of either Chinese, German, Japanese or French as an elective course.

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Religion

Bulguksa Temple was added to the UNESCO World Heritage Site list in 1995.

Christianity (29%) and Buddhism (26%) comprise South Korea's two dominant religions. Christianity initially got a foothold in Korea during the Japanese Occupation, then in the 1970s and early 1980s grew exponentially, and despite slower growth in the 1990s, caught up to Buddhism as a significant faith. Presbyterians (with around 6.5-7.8 million members), Roman Catholics (2.5-3.8 million), Pentecostals (1-1.7 million), and Methodists (1-1.4 million) are the largest denominations. Statistics have been published purporting to show that almost 50 percent of South Koreans are Christians, but these figures are almost certainly inflated, due to the high incidence of dual membership and unrecorded transfers of membership among different denominations. Christians, although well represented in all parts of South Korea, are especially strong around Seoul, where they comprise about 50 percent of the population. (See also Christianity in Korea)

Buddhism is stronger in the more conservative south of the country, especially in Busan and other rural parts of the country. There are a number of different "schools" in Buddhism; among them are the Seon (선) (Imported from Chan Buddhism in China, then later taught to the Japanese as Zen Buddhism), and the more modern Wonbulgyo (원불교) movement, which emphasizes the unity of all things. Other religions comprise about 9.4 percent of the population. These include Shamanism (traditional spirit worship) and Cheondogyo, an indigenous religion combining elements of Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, and Christianity. Confucianism is small in terms of self-declared adherents, but the great majority of South Koreans, irrespective of their formal religious affiliation, are strongly influenced by Confucianist values, which continue to permeate Korean culture.

About 46 percent of South Koreans profess to follow no particular religion. There are also about 37,000 members of the Bahá'í Faith and about 33,000 Muslims. The remaining religions include Taoism and Hinduism.

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Culture

Main articles: Culture of Korea, Contemporary culture of South Korea

Korean traditonal hanbok

Korean cultural development is generally divided into periods coinciding with political development: the Three Kingdoms period (57 B.C. - 668 A.D.), the Unified Silla dynasty (668-935), the Koryo dynasty (918-1392), the Joseon dynasty (1392-1910), and the modern period (1910]]-present).

Historically, Korea was strongly influenced by Chinese culture and acted as a conduit of culture from China to Japan. Koreans adapted many Chinese art forms with innovation and skill, creating distinctively Korean forms. For many centures, metalwork, sculpture, painting, and ceramics flourished throughout the Korean peninsula. Buddhism provided one of the most significant sources for artistic expression. Confucianism, also prominent, emphasized the importance of literature and calligraphy, as well as portrait and landscape painting.

Western influence began to dominate Korean society in the late 1800s, when Korea opened itself to the Western world. During the Japanese colonial rule, indigenous traditions were strongly discouraged. Since then, however, Koreans have made a concerted effort to keep their cultural traditions alive. Koreans possess a deep apprecation for their cultural heritage. The South Korean government actively encourages the traditional arts, as well as modern forms, through funding and education programs as well as sponsorship of an annual national competitive exhibition.

Many great scholars and philosophers lived in Korea, but are not well known to outsiders due to the country's early isolationism. One example is King Sejong the Great, who invented the world's first rain gauge and water clock.

South Korea shares its traditional culture with that of North Korea. Despite China's historical influence on Korean culture, today the roles are reversed, with an increased Korean influence in China in terms of popular music, fashion and television drama. In recent years, Korean pop culture has gained massive popularity in many parts of Asia, earning the name Hallyu or "Korean Wave". Korean pop culture has also made way into Japan, with Korean singers like BoA and televeision drama Winter Sonata gaining massive popularity there. Many have viewed the popularity of Korean pop culture in Japan as a path to reconciliation between the two countries.

Since its division into two separate states, the two Koreas have developed distinct contemporary forms of culture.

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Foreign relations

There are several disputes between South Korea and Japan. Refer to the Korean-Japanese disputes for other disputes.

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Sea name dispute

There is a dispute about the name of the sea bounded by the Korean peninsula, Russia, and Japan. Many maps call it the Sea of Japan, but in South Korea it is exclusively known as the "East Sea," and in North Korea it is known as the "East Sea of Korea". In compromise, some maps use both names, calling it the "Sea of Japan (East Sea)". For further details on this dispute, see Dispute over the name of the Sea of Japan.

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Territorial dispute

South Korea and Japan have a territorial dispute over "Liancourt Rocks" in the East Sea (also known as Sea of Japan). The islet is called "Takeshima" in Japanese and "Dokdo" in Korean. Liancourt Rocks is predominantly volcanic rock and surrounded by rich fishing grounds. There might also be some deposits of natural gas in the area. Currently it is controlled by South Korea, however, Japan also claims the territory and is asking the South Korean government for mediation by the International Court of Justice.

Japan's claim that Liancourt Rocks are a territory in Japan included in Shimane Prefecture, is based on the 'Article 40 of the Shimane Prefecture's Ordinance' documented in 1905. The Japanese side, with the cabinet having proclaimed the "Liancourt Rocks" as its land on January 28, 1905 and with the governor of the Prefecture having incorporated the islets into the Shimane Prefecture a month later, argues that the islets constitute as a legitimate territory within international law. Moreover, Japan was an occupied by the United States when South Korea began to control Liancourt Rocks and therefore unable to express its territorial claim to South Korean government at that time. The Treaty on Basic Relations between Japan and the Republic of Korea that the Japanese and South Korean governments ratified states that a bilateral dispute should be solved by talks.

In contrast, Korean side presents as an important evidence royal edict No. 41 of the King Gojong in the 1900 government gazette notice to the effect that the Ulleung County jurisdiction comprises of Ulleung Island and Seok-do. (Dok-do was referred to as Seok-do in the royal edict.) Thus, Dok-do was not unclaimed territory when Japanese cabinet unilaterally claimed it in 1905. Before this, Japan had fought two consecutive wars for the control of the Korean Peninsula, the Sino-Japanese War and the Russo-Japanese War.

Historical evidences date back to the Annals of Three Kingdoms (Samguk Sagi). In 512, the 13th year of the King Jijeung, the Annals records that State of Usan including Ulleung Island belonged to the Silla Dynasty; and it is generally inferred from this that the Seok-do was incorporated into the Dynasty along with the Ulleung-do. The geography book or Jiriji, compiled in the year 1432 of the Joseon Dynasty, also records that two islands, Usan and Ulleung were on the sea to the due east. Another geographical book called "Sinjeungdongguk Yeojiseungram," published in 1531, describes in its section on Uljin-hyeon, Gangwon Province that 'Usan-do and Ulleung-do were on the sea to the due east. The historical record of Ulleung-do 1694 by Jang Han-sang of Samcheok Cheongsa indicates that there was an island about 300 ri (or 75km) from and one third the size of the Ulleung-do. Under the Article 2 and Section a of the San Francisco Peace Treaty, Japan was to recognize the independence of Korea and return Jeju, Geomun, Ulleung Islands; in this section, there was no mention on Dok-do. Korean side argues, however, that the Dok-do, even though its name was not specifically referred to in the Treaty, was assumed to be part of the Ulleung-do.

Another disputed territory is the Island known as "Daemado" in Korean and "Tsushima" in Japanese. Currently the island is controlled by the Japanese. In the 15th century, General Lee Jong-mu conquered the Island from Masan, Korea and put it under the jurisdiction of Gyeongsang Province. According to Jeoson records, Dongguk Yeojiseungram, Korea never formally handed over the island to Japan.

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Tourism

Domestic tourism is quite popular among Koreans, but is still catching on with non-Koreans. Seoul is the principal tourist destination for non-Koreans. Popular tourist destinations for Koreans include Seorak-san national park, the historic city of Gyeongju, and semi-tropical Jeju Island. Travel to North Korea is not normally possible except with special permission, but in recent years organized group tours have taken South Koreans to Kŭmgang-san mountain in the North.

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Miscellaneous topics

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Wednesday, May 04, 2005

Wed, 04 May 2005 00:00:43 GMT

Clicking anywhere on this map will give you a more detailed look at that portion of the Roman Empire; as a guideline, the map above is divided into nine relatively equal segments which overlap somewhat in case you click near the border of a portion. The detailed maps will allow you to select segments for even greater detail. The detailed maps at both levels vary somewhat in size, depending on the complexity of the images displayed; the average is about 50K- 60K, but the range is 24K - 103K. With reasonably fast connections, most images should appear completely in less than a minute.

A larger version of the map above (148K and about the size of a 14" or 15" monitor [make your browser window as large as possible]) is also available.

The largest version of the map above available here (314K) will require a 17" monitor or larger at high resolution (1280 x1024, but on a 17" monitor details are not particularly readable) if the entire empire is to be seen at once; it is included for viewers who have the required monitors and/or do not mind waiting a considerable time for download or scrolling to see different parts of the empire.

Note: Though this map states that the Roman Empire was at its greatest extent in the third century A.D., Mesopotamia, shown here as part of the empire, was only briefly part of the Roman world during the last years of the reign of Trajan (emperor A.D. 98-117) and was abandoned immediately after his death by Hadrian. The boundary was frequently, almost constantly, in dispute, but the northwestern portion of Mesopotamia on this map was usually in Roman hands.

This map of the Roman Empire was scanned from pages 16 & 17 of a 1925 reprint of the 1907 Atlas of Ancient and Classical Geography in the Everyman Library, published by J.M. Dent & Sons Ltd. and is, by Canadian copyright law, in the public domain, to the best of my knowledge. The original scan was done at 300 dpi in 24 bit colour, resulting in a very large file of uncompressed data and 1.1 MB as a compressed JPEG file. I have edited the image to remove the blank margins of the two pages (some remnants of that process inevitably remain). During the preparation of the smaller maps and the two levels of detailed maps, I have worked with the high resolution scanned image, with the reductions in resolution applied as the final stage, to create files of reasonable size and images of high quality.

Tuesday, May 03, 2005

Tue, 03 May 2005 23:54:26 GMT

Roman Mythology

ROMAN MYTHOLOGY, various beliefs, rituals, and other observances concerning the supernatural held or practiced by the ancient Romans from the legendary period until Christianity finally completely supplanted the native religions of the Roman Empire at the start of the Middle Ages. The original religion of the early Romans was so modified by the addition of numerous and conflicting beliefs in later times, and by the assimilation of a vast amount of Greek mythology, that it cannot be reconstructed precisely. Because extensive changes in the religion had already taken place before the literary tradition began, its origins were in most cases unknown to the early Roman writers on religion, such as the 1st-century BC scholar Marcus Terentius Varro. Other classical writers, such as the poet Ovid in his Fasti (Calendar), were strongly influenced by Alexandrian models, and in their works they frequently employed Greek beliefs to fill gaps in the Roman tradition.Gods of the Roman People. The Roman ritual clearly distinguishes two classes of gods, the di indigetes and the de novensides or novensiles. The indigetes were the original gods of the Roman state, and their names and nature are indicated by the titles of the earliest priests and by the fixed festivals of the calendar; 30 such gods were honored with special festivals. The novensides were later divinities whose cults were introduced in the historical period. Early Roman divinities included, in addition to the di indigetes, a host of so-called specialist gods whose names were invoked in the carrying out of various activities, such as harvesting. Fragments of old ritual accompanying such acts as plowing or sowing reveal that at every stage of the operation a separate deity was invoked, the name of each deity being regularly derived from the verb for the operation. Such divinities may be grouped under the general term of attendant, or auxiliary, gods, who were invoked along with the greater deities. Early Roman cult was not so much a polytheism as a polydemonism the worshipers' concepts of the invoked beings consisted of little more than their names and functions, and the being's numen, or power, manifested itself in highly specialized ways.

The character of the indigetes and their festivals show that the early Romans were not only members of an agricultural community but also were fond of fighting and much engaged in war. The gods represented distinctly the practical needs of daily life, as felt by the Roman community to which they belonged. They were scrupulously accorded the rites and offerings considered proper. Thus, Janus and Vesta guarded the door and hearth, the Lares protected the field and house, Pales the pasture, Saturn the sowing, Ceres the growth of the grain, Pomon a the fruit, and Consus and Ops the harvest. Even the majestic Jupiter, the ruler of the gods, was honored for the aid his rains might give to the farms and vineyards. In his more encompassing character he was considered, through his weapon of lightning, the director of human activity and, by his widespread domain, the protector of the Romans in their military activities beyond the borders of their own community. Prominent in early times were the gods Mars and Quirinus, who were often identified with each other. Mars was a god of young men and their activities, especially war; he was honored in March and October. Quirinus is thought by modern scholars to have been the patron of the armed community in time of peace.

At the head of the earliest pantheon were the triad Jupiter, Mars, and Quirinus (whose three priests, or flamens, were of the highest order), and Janus and Vesta. These gods in early times had little individuality, and their personal histories lacked marriages and genealogies. Unlike the gods of the Greeks, they were not considered to function in the manner of mortals, and thus not many accounts of their activities exist. This older worship was associated with Numa Pompilius, the second legendary king of Rome, who was believed to have had as his consort and adviser the Roman goddess of fountains and childbirth, Egeria. New elements were added at a relatively early date, however. To the royal house of the Tarquins was ascribed by legend the establishment of the great Capitoline triad, Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, which assumed the supreme place in Roman religion. Other additions were the worship of Diana on the Aventine Hill and the introduction of the Sibylline Books, prophecies of world history, which, according to legend, were purchased by Tarquin in the late 6th century BC from the Cumaean Sibyl.Inclusion of Other Deities.

The absorption of neighboring native gods took place as the Roman state conquered the surrounding territory. The Romans commonly granted the local gods of the conquered territory the same honors as the earlier gods who had been regarded as peculiar to the Roman state. In many instances the newly acquired deities were formally invited to take up their abode in new sanctuaries at Rome. Moreover, the growth of the city attracted foreigners, who were allowed to continue the worship of their own gods In addition to Castor and Pollux, the conquered settlements in Italy seem to have contributed to the Roman pantheon Diana, Minerva, Hercules, Venus, and other deities of lesser rank, some of whom were Italian divinities, others originally derived from Greece. The important Roman deities were eventually identified with the more anthropomorphic Greek gods and goddesses, whose attributes and myths were also taken over. Religious Festivals. The Roman religious calendar reflected Rome's hospitality to the cults and deities of conquered territories. Originally Roman religious festivals were few in number. Some of the oldest survived to the very end of the pagan empire, preserving the memory of the fertility and propitiatory rites of a primitive agricultural people. New festivals were introduced, however, to mark the naturalization of new gods. So many festivals were adopted eventually that the work days on the calendar were outnumbered. Among the more important of the Roman religious festivals were the Saturnalia, the Lupercalia, the Equiria, and the Secular Games.

Under the empire, the Saturnalia was celebrated for seven days, from December 17 to 23, during the period in which the winter solstice occurred. All business was suspended, slaves were given temporary freedom, gifts were exchanged, and merriment prevailed. The Lupercalia was an ancient festival originally honoring Lupercus, a pastoral god of the Italians. The festival was celebrated on February 15 at the cave of the Lupercal on the Palatine Hill, where the legendary founders of Rome, the twins Romulus and Remus, were supposed to have been nursed by a wolf. Among the Roman legends connected with them is that of Faustulus, a shepherd who was supposed to have discovered the twins in the wolf's den and to have taken them to his home, in which they were brought up by his wife, Acca Larentia.

The Equiria, a festival in honor of Mars, was celebrated on February 27 and March 14, traditionally the time of year when new military campaigns were prepared. Horse races in the Campus Martius notably marked the celebration.

The Secular Games, which included both athletic spectacles and sacrifices, were held at irregular intervals, traditionally once only in about every century, to mark the beginning of a new saeculum, or era. The tradition, however, was often neglected.Roman Temples. The numbers and architecture of Roman temples also reflect the city's receptivity to all the religions of the world. The temple of Isis and Serapis in the Campus Martius, built of Egyptian materials and in the Egyptian style to house the Hellenized cult of the Egyptian deity Isis, is typical of the heterogeneity of Roman religious monuments. The most noteworthy temples of Rome were the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus and the Pantheon. The temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, on the Capitoline Hill, was dedicated in 509 BC to Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. Constructed originally in the Etruscan style, it was rebuilt or restored several times under the empire and was finally ruined by the Vandals in AD 455. The Pantheon was built from AD 117 to 138 by Emperor Hadrian and dedicated to all the gods; this building replaced a smaller temple built by the general and statesman Marcus Agrippa. The Pantheon became a Christian church in 607 and is now an Italian national monument.Decline of the Roman Religion. The transference of the anthropomorphic qualities of Greek gods to Roman religion, and perhaps even more, the prevalence of Greek philosophy among well-educated Romans, brought about an increasing neglect of the old rites, and in the 1st century BC the religious importance of the old priestly offices declined rapidly. Many men whose patrician birth called them to these duties had no belief in the rites, except perhaps as a political necessity, and the mass of the uneducated populace became increasingly interested in foreign rites. Never-the-less, the positions of pontiff and augur remained coveted political posts.

A thorough reform and restoration of the old system was carried out by Emperor Augustus, who himself became a member of all the priestly orders. Even though the earlier ritual had had little to do with morality, being mainly a businesslike relation with unseen powers in which humans paid proper service to the gods and were rewarded by security, it had promoted piety and religious discipline and thus was fostered by Augustus as a safeguard against internal disorder. During this period the legend of the founding of Rome by the Trojan hero Aeneas became prominent because of the publication of Vergil's Aeneid.

In spite of the reforms instituted by Augustus, the Roman religion in the empire tended more and more to center on the imperial house, and eventually the emperors were deified after death. Such deification began even before the establishment of the empire, with Julius Caesar. The emperors Augustus, Claudius, Vespasian, and Titus were also deified, and after the reign (AD 96-98) of Marcus Cocceius Nerva, few emperors failed to receive this distinction.

Under the empire, numerous foreign cults grew popular and were widely extended, such as the worship of the Egyptian goddess Isis and that of the Persian god Mithras, which was similar to Christianity in some respects. Despite persecutions extending from the reign of Nero to that of Diocletian, Christianity steadily gained converts, and it became an officially supported religion in the Roman state under Constantine I, who ruled as sole emperor from AD 324 to 337. All the pagan cults were prohibited in AD 392 by an edict of Emperor Theodosius I.

**Roman and Greek God Comparisons**
Roman	Greek
Apollo	Apollo
Bacchus	Dionysus
Ceres	Demeter
Coelus	Uranus
Cupid	Eros
Cybele	Rhea
Diana	Artemis
Hercules	Heracles
Juno	Hera
Jupiter	Zeus
Latona	Leto
Mars	Ares
Mercury	Hermes
Minerva	Athena
Neptune	Poseidon
Pluto	Hades
Proserpina	Persephone
Saturn	Cronus
Ulysses	Odysseus
Venus	Aphrodite
Vesta	Hestia
Vulcan	Hephaestus

Aeneas

Aeneas, was a Trojan hero and the son of Anchises and Venus, the Roman goddess of love. He was the favourite of the Romans, who believed that some of their eminent families were descended from the Trojans who fled westwards with him from Asia Minor after the Greek sack of Troy. Upsatrt Rome was only too aware of its lack of tradition and history in comparison with Greece, so the exploits of Aeneas conveniently provided a means of reasserting national pride. It was not a coincidence that the first Roman emperor, Augustus, took a personal interest in the myth.

During the Trojan War, Anchises was unable to fight, having been rendered blind or lame for boasting about his relationship with Venus. But young Aeneas distinguished himself against the Greeks, who feared him second only to Hector, the Trojan champion. In gratitude Priam gave Aeneas his daughter Creusa to have as his wife, and a son was born named Ascanius.

Although Venus warned him of the impending fall of Troy, Anchises refused to quit the city until two omens occurred: a small flame rose from the top of Ascanius'head and a meteor fell close by. So, carrying Anchises on his back, Aeneas managed to escape Troy with his father and his son. Somehow Creusa became separated from the party and disappeared. Later, Aeneas saw her ghost and leaned from it that he would found a new Troy in distant Italy.

After sailing through the Aegean Sea, where the small fleet Aeneas commanded stopped at a number of islands, the fleet came to Epirus on the eastern Adriatic coast. From there it made for Sicily, but before reaching the Italian mainland it was diverted to North Africa during a sudden storm sent by the goddess Juno, the Roman equivalent of Hera, who harassed Aeneas throughout the voyage. Only the timely help of Neptune, the Roman sea god. saved the fleet from shipwreck. At the city of Carthage, the great trading port founded by the Phoenicians, Venus ensured that Aeneas fell in love with its beautiful queen, the widow Dido. Because of her own flight to Carthage, Dido welcomed the Trojan refugees with great kindness and unlimited hospitality.

Time passed pleasantly for the lovers, as Aeneas and Dido soon became, and it seemed as if Italy and the new state to be founded on its shores were both forgotten. But watchful Jupiter, the chief Roman god, dispatched Mercury with a message to Aeneas, recalling him to his duty and commanding him to resume the voyage. Horrified by his intention to leave, Dido bitterly reproached Aenas, but his deep sense of piety gave him strength enough to launch the fleet again. Then the weeping queen mounted a pyre which she had ordered to be prepared and, having run herself through with a sword, was consumed by the flames.

When the Trojans finally landed in Italy, near the city of Cumae, Aeneas went to consult the Sibyl, who was a renowned prophetess. She took him on a visit to the underworld. There Aeneas met his father's ghost, who showed him the destiny of Rome. Anchises had died of old age during the stay in Sicily, but his enthusuastic outline of the future encouraged his sosn. Aeneas also saw Dido's ghost, but it did not speak to him and hurriedly turned away.

Afterwards, Aeneas steered for the mouth of the River Tiber, on whose river banks the city of Rome would be built centuries later. Conflict with the Latins, the local inhabitants, was bloody and prolonged. But peace was made when Aeneas married Lavinia, the daughter of King Latinus. It had been foretold that for the sake of the kingdom lavinia must marry a man from abroad. The Trojans, in order to appease Juno, adopted the Latins' traditions and language.

Amulius

Amulius, in Roman mythology was a descendant of the Trojan hero Aeneas. He usurped the throne of Alba Longa from his younger brother Numitor and forced Numitor's daughter Rhea Silvia to become a Vestal Virgin so as to deny her father an heir. When Rhea Silvia was raped by the war god Mars, Amulius imprisoned her and ordered that her twin sons, Romulus and Remus, be drowned in the Tiber. But the two boys escaped a watery death and grew up in the countryside. Once they realised their parentage, Romulus and Remus returned to Alba Longa and killed their uncle Amulius.

Ascanius

Ascanius, was the son of Aeneas and Creusa. According to the Romans, he founded the city of Alba Longa thirty-three years after the arrival of the Trojan refugees in Italy. An alternative tradition makes Ascanius'mother Lavinia, a Latin princess whose marriage to Aeneas brought peace and unity to the Latin and Trojan peoples. It was in her honour that Aeneas founded Lavinium within three years of landing. This would mean that Ascanius was king of Lavinium following Aeneas'death, and before he left to take up residence in a new city at Alba Longa. Early rivalry between the two cities probably explains the removal myth.

The family of Julius Caesar, the Julii, claimed descent from Aeneas through Ascanius, who was alo called Iulus Ilus ("made of Ilium"), Ilium being the old name for Troy.

Apollo

Apollo was the son of Jupiter and Latona (Leto). His twin sister was Diana also referred to as Artemis the virgin huntress. He was one of the most important deities of both Greek and Roman religions, and was the god of prophecy, archery (far shooting with a silver bow) and music, playing a golden lyre. The origin of his name is uncertain but it is probably non-European. A fight with gigantic erath-serpent Python at Delphi gave Appolo the seat of his famous oracle. Python was an oospring of Gaia, mother earth, which issued revelations through a fissure in the rock so that a priestess, the Pythia, could give answers to any questions that might be asked. After he slew the earth-serpent, Apploo took its place, though he had to do penance in Thessaly for killing. Indeed, Zeus twice forced Apollo to be the slave of a mortal man to pay for his crime.

Apollo's interest in healing, suggests an ancient association with the plague and its control. In Greek mthyology, Apollo's son Asclepius was also identified with healing and connected with sites in northern Greece. Indeed, so accomplished was Asclepius in medicine that Zeus slew him with a thunderbolt for daring to bring a man back to life. Apollo was also known as the god of light, the god of truth, who can not speak a lie.

One of Apollo's more important daily tasks was to harness his chariot with four horses an drive the Sun across the sky.

His tree was the laurel. The crow his bird. The dolphin his animal.

Ceres

Ceres daughter of Saturn and Rhea. Wife-sister of Jupiter and mother of Prosperpina. Ceres is the goddess of grain, growing plants and the love that a mother bears for her child. Personified and celebrated by women in secret rituals at the festival of Ambarvalia, held during the month of May.

Cincinnatus

Cincinnatus was a Roman hero who was instrumental in saving the early Republic. In 458 BC, Rome was in danger of being destroyed by the Aequi, a neighbouring Italian tribe. To defeat this threat, the Senate voted to appoint Cincinnatus as dictator, a temporary office vested with unlimited powers. A deputation was sent ot his small farm, which was the smallest landholding allowed to qualify for citizenship. The senators found Cincinnatus at work tending his crops. He was told of the Senate's decisin and was saluted as dictator. However, the plebeians, the ordinary people, feared that Cincinnatus might abuse his position. Their fears proved groundless and, after the defeat of the Aequi, they voted Cincinnatus a golden wreath at the end of his sixty days of office. He then returned to his fields and was remembered as the perfect example of a virtuous and dutiful Roman citizen.

Cupid

Cupid was the Roman god of love and the son of the love goddess Venus. He was depicted as a beautiful but wanton boy, armed with a quiver full of ärrowed desires". Some of the arrows, however, would turn people away from those who fell in love with them.

According to one myth, Venus was jealous of Psysve ("the soul") and told Cupid to make her love the ugliest man alive. But Cupid fell in love with Psyche and, invisible, visited her every night. He told her not to try to see him, but, overcome by curiosity, she did try and he left her. Psyshe searched the world for him, until the sky god Jupiter granted he immortality so that she could be Cupid's constant companion. The couple's daughter was named Voluptas ("pleasure").

Curtius

Curtius is the subject of a strange incident in Roman mythology. Around 363 BC a great chasm appeared in the Forum of Rome, which led straight down to the underworld. It has appeared because Romans forgot to make appropriate sacrifice to the dead. Marcus Curtius therefore plunged on horseback into the bottomless pit and was seen no more.

Diana

Diana is the mother of wild animals and forests, and a moon goddess. Oak groves are especially sacred to her. She is praised for her strength, athletic grace, beauty and her hunting skills. With two other deities she made up a trinity: Egeria the water nymph, her servant and assistant midwife; and Virbius, the woodland god.

Faunus

Faunus was the Roman god of the countryside and identified with the Greek Pan, god of the mountainside. Faunus was said to be the grandson of Saturn and was credited with prophetic powers, which on occasion inspired the Romans to renew efforts on the battlefield in the face of defeat. Perhaps this is the reason for Faunus sometimes being seen as a descendant of the war god Mars. His mortal son, Latinus, was the king of the Latin people at the time of Aeneas'arrival in Italy after the long voyage from Troy.

Janus

Janus was a very old Italian god who the Romans associated with beginnings. In Rome, his double-grated temple in the Forum was always kept open in time of war and closed in time of peace. The month of January - a time for people to look backwards and forwards - was sacred to Janus. There are few myths concerning him, although his extra eyes did on one occasion enable him to catch the nymph Carna, who liked to tease her lovers with sexual advances before suddenly running away. Their son became a king of the important city of Alba Longa.

Juno

Juno was the Roman equivalent of the Greek goddess Hera and was considered the Roman supreme goddess, married to the ruling god, Jupiter. She is believed to watch and protect all women and was called by the Romans "the one who makes the child see the light of day". Every year, on the first of March, women hold a festival in honor of Juno called the Matronalia. To this day, many people consider the month of June, which is named after the goddess who is the patroness of marriage, to be the most favorable time to marry. Juno's own warlike aspect is apparent in her attire. She often appears armed and wearing a goatskin cloak, which was the garment favoured by Roman soldiers on campaign. In Rome she was worshipped on the Capital hill along with Jupiter and Minerva, goddess of wisdom and the arts.

Jupiter

Jupiter was the Roman sky god, the equivalent of the Greek god Zeus. The cult of the Jupiter Optimus Maximus ("the best and greatest") began under the Etrucan kings, who were expelled from Rome around 507 BC. At first, Jupiter was associated with the elements, especially storms, and lightning, but he later became the protector of the Roman people and was their powerful ally in war. The games held in the Circus in Rome were dedicated to him.

Mars

Mars was the son of Juno and a magical flower and initially was the Roman god of fertility and vegetation but later became associated with battle. As the god of spring, when his major festivals were held, he presided over agriculture in general. In his warlike aspect, Mars was offered sacrifices before combat and was said to appear on the battlefield accompanied by Bellona, a warrior goddess variously identified as his wife, sister or daughter. Mars unlike his Greek counterpart, Ares, was more widely worshipped than any of the other Roman gods, probably because his sons Romulus and Remus were said to have founded Rome. As the consort of Rhea Sylvia and father of Romulus and Remus, Mars was considered the father of the Roman people.

Mercury

Mercury was the Roman messenger god, and was also the deity who watched over trade and coomerce, as his name suggests. He was associated with peace and prosperity. He was apparently imported from Greece around the fifth century BC. Mercury is usually depicted in the same way as his Greelk counterpart Hermes, with a winged hat and staff.

Minerva

Minerva (whose name may have originally meant "thought") was the daughter of Jupiter and Juno. Considered to be the virgin goddess of warriors, poetry, medicine, wisdom, commerce, crafts, and inventor of music. She was the equivalent of the Greek goddess Athena. Ovid called her the "goddess of a thousand works." Minerva was worshipped throughout Italy, though only in Rome did she take on a warlike character. Minerva is usually depicted wearing a coat of mail and a helment, and carrying a spear. The Romans celebrated her worship from March 19 to 23 during the Quinquatrus, the artisans' holiday.

Neptune

Neptune was an ancient Italian water god whom the Romans identified with Poseidon. Compared to Poseidon, however, Neptune plays a minor role in Roman mythology.

Proserpine

Proserpina is the counterpart of the Greek goddess, Persephone. She was kidnapped by Pluto and taken to his underworld and made queen of the dead.

Rhea Silvia

Rhea Silva was the mother of Romulus and Remus. She was the only child of Numitor, the king of Alba Longa. When he was deposed by his younger brother Amulius, the new king forced Rhea Silvia to become a vestial virgin. However, Amulius could not guarantee Rhea Silvia's protection from the attentions of the gods and she was raped by Mars in his sacred grove. Her twin sons were then cast into the swollen Tiber, where she may have been drowned.

Romulus and Remus

Romulus and Remus were the twin sons of Rhea Silvia and Mars, and the two founders of Rome. Rhea Silvia had been the only child of King Numitor of Alba Longa. When Numitor's brother Amulius deposed him, he also forced Rhea Silvia to become a vestal virgin, thereby ensuring that there would be no other claimant to the throne. But the war god Mars raped her in his sacred grove, and Rhea Silvia gave birth to Romulus and Remus.

Amulius ordered his servants to kill the new born twins, but instead they cast them on the Tiber. Their cradle was carried swiftly away and eventually came to rest on a mud bank. To look after his children, Mars sent his sacred animal the wolf. Later Romulus and Remus were discovered in the wolf's lair by a shepherd named Faustulus, who took the foundlings home. So they were raised as sheperds, although the ability of the brothers to lead others, and to fight, eventually became widly known. One day Numitor met Remus and guessed who he was and so the lost grandchildren were reunited with him, but they were not content to live quietly in Alba Longa. Instead, they went off and founded a coty of their own - Rome. A quarrel, however, ensued and Romulus killed Remus, possibly with a blow from a spade. Though he showed remorse at the funeral, Romulus ruled Rome with a strong hand and the city flourished. It was a haven for runaway slaves and other fugitives, but suffered from a shortage of women, which Romulus overcame by arranging for the capture of Sabine women at a nearby festival. After a reign of forty years he disappeared to become, some of his subjects believed, the war god Quirinus.

Saturn

Saturn was an ancient Italian corn god, the Roman equivalent of the Greek god Cronos, though he had more in common with goddess Demeter. He was believed to have ruled the earth during a lost Golden Age. His festival, the Saturnalia, was celebrated in Rome over seven days and was held at the end of December.

Sibyl

Sibyl, in Roman mythology, was the prophetess who dwelt near Cumae, in southern Italy. One tale explains how she became immortal but still grew old. She refused the favours of Apollo, the god of prophecy, so he condemned her to endless old age. She was already ancient when Aeneas consulted her about his visit to the underworld. Another story concerns the famous Sibylline Books, which were a collection of oracles that detailed Rome's destiny. These were offered for sale to Rome during the rule of the Etruscan kings. When the offer was refused, Sibyl burned three books and offered the other six at the same price, but the offer was still refused, so three more were burnt and then she offered the last three at the original price. In haste the Romans closed the deal before all the irreplaceable oracles were totally destroyed.

Tarpeia

Tarpeia was a Roman heroine, the daughter of Spurius Tarpeius, the commander of the Capitoline fortress at Rome. She may have played a role in saving the city. A war between Romans and Sabines, a people of central Italy, had been provoked by Romulus'abduction of Sabine women to provide wives for Rome's men. One tradition says that Tarpeia let the Sabines into her father's fortress after making them promise to give her what they wore on their left arms, their shields. Another mentions only their bracelets. In the first version the Sabines realised that they had been tricked and threw their shields at her and killed her. The Romans could not agree how Tarpeia died but, whatever her motive was, real traitors were always thrown from the Tarpeian Rock.

Venus

Venus was the Roman equivalent of Aphrodite, the Greek love goddess. Venus was the daughter of Jupiter and Dione, although sometimes portayed as being created by Uranus from the foam of the sea at the moment of his death. As the goddess of love, she is the "queen of pleasure" and mother of the Roman people. She was married to Vulcan, the lame god of the forge, and mother of Cupid, Hymen, Priapus and Aeneas. It was Venus who recovered her son Aeneas'spear during his fight with the Italian champion Tumus, thus saving his life. Venus is also associated with her lover, Mars the god of war. Considered a nature goddess, associated with the arrival of spring. Venus is the bringer of joy to gods and humans.

Vesta

Vesta was the Roman equivalent of the Greek goddess Hesta, who was the goddess of the hearth. Vesta, however, was worshipped both as the guardian of the domestic hearth and also as the personification of the ceremonial flame. Ceremonies in her honour were conducted by the vestal virgins, who were young girls from noble families who took vows of chastity for the thirty years during which they served her. Vesta's chief festival, the Vestalia, was held on 7 June.

Vulcan

Vulcan the son of Jupiter and Juno. Husband of Maia and Venus. God of fire and volcanoes, and the manufacturer of art, arms and armor for gods and heroes. His smithy was believed to be situated underneath Mount Aetna in Sicily. At the Vulcanalia festival, which was held on 23 August, fish and small animals were thrown into a fire.

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